Dictionary conventions

My word: Respect

Cambridge Dictionary:

Noun

uk   /rɪˈspekt/  us   /rɪˈspekt/

• respect noun (ADMIRATION)

B1 [U] ​admiration ​felt or ​shown for someone or something that you ​believe has good ​ideas or ​qualities: I have ​great/the ​greatest respect for his ​ideas, ​although I don't ​agree with them.She is a ​formidable ​figure who ​commands a ​great ​deal of respect (= who is ​greatly ​admired by ​others).New ​teachers have to ​earn/​gain the respect of ​their ​students.

Collins English Dictionary:

noun

1. an attitude of deference, admiration, or esteem; regard
2. the state of being honoured or esteemed
3. a detail, point, or characteristic; particular   ⇒ he differs in some respects from his son
4. reference or relation (esp in the phrases in respect of, with respect to)
5. polite or kind regard; consideration   ⇒ respect for people's feelings
6. (often plural) an expression of esteem or regard (esp in the phrase pay one's respects)

verb (transitive)

7. to have an attitude of esteem towards; show or have respect for   ⇒ to respect one's elders
8. to pay proper attention to; not violate   ⇒ to respect Swiss neutrality
9. to show consideration for; treat courteously or kindly
10. (archaic) to concern or refer to

Synonyms:     

           

= think highly of, value, regard, honour, recognize, appreciate, admire, esteem, adore, revere, reverence, look up to, defer to, venerate, set store by, have a good or high opinion of

= show consideration for, regard, notice, honour, observe, heed, attend to, pay attention to

= abide by, follow, observe, comply with, obey, heed, keep to, adhere to

= regard, honour, recognition, esteem, appreciation, admiration, reverence, estimation, veneration, approbation, props (US) (slang)

= consideration, kindness, deference, friendliness, tact, thoughtfulness, solicitude, kindliness, considerateness

= particular, way, point, matter, sense, detail, feature, aspect, characteristic, facet

= greetings, regards, compliments, good wishes, salutations, devoirs

Oxford English Dictionary:

Noun

1 [mass noun] A feeling of deep admiration for someone or something elicited by their abilities, qualities, or achievements: the director had a lot of respect for Douglas as an actor

• Every party expressed its deep respect for her abilities as shown in that position.
• I have found a new admiration and respect for what she has achieved.
• The team he inherited had little respect for his achievements as a manager, but he sensed their indifference and weeded out the dissidents with minimal fuss.

Synonyms

esteem, regard, high regard, high opinion, acclaim, admiration, approbation, approval, appreciation, estimation, favour, popularity, recognition, veneration, awe, reverence, deference, honour, praise, homage

1.1The state of being admired or respected: his first chance in over fifteen years to regain respect in the business 

• We should admire those who command respect through their actions, their vision, or their concern for others.
• At least it help boost the police's image and regain the public respect following their deteriorating performance in general.
• Although this might be unpopular in the short term, at least they will regain some respect once the current mob mentality dies down.

1.2 (respects) A person’s polite greetings: give my respects to their Excellencies

• Will you be so good as to give my Respects to the President?
• Give my respects to my uncles there and them them that they have my best wishes.
• Please don't forget to give my respects to your father.

1.3 informal Used to express the speaker’s approval of someone or something: respect to Hill for a truly non-superficial piece on the techno scene

• Despite this he kept up very well with a strong team bent on glory, no mean feat for somebody with only a few trips under his belt, respect!
• Having got what he always wanted - respect, he still has miles to go.

2Due regard for the feelings, wishes, or rights of others: young people’s lack of respect for their parents

• It also reflected a respect for standards and for the public with whom staff were in contact and it reinforced morale.
• The nature of the conversation and the respect for elders reflects Chinese customs, particularly that of the young coming to the wise for advice.
• I think that, when you work with somebody of that caliber there's just an immediate respect for him and his process.

Synonyms

due regard, consideration, thoughtfulness, attentiveness, politeness, courtesy, civility, deference

3A particular aspect, point, or detail: the government’s record in this respect is a mixed one

• But even if successful in all respects, who will benefit, and on what genetic disorders will the therapy be practiced?
• I think to a large extent it comes from growing up in the 1930s, when the situation in all respects was much worse than it is today.
• And if jurisdiction matters in this respect, then why not in other respects?

Synonyms

aspect, regard, facet, feature, way, sense, characteristic, particular, point, detail, question, matter, connection

verb

[with object]

1Admire (someone or something) deeply, as a result of their abilities, qualities, or achievements: she was respected by everyone she worked with (as adjective respected) a respected academic

• I admire and respect you for achieving all that you have over the years.
• When the manager respects you for your ability and wants you in the team, your confidence rises and you want to repay him.
• You are a universally admired and respected musician and songwriter.

Synonyms

esteem, admire, think highly of, have a high opinion of, hold in high regard, hold in (high) esteem, think much of, approve of, appreciate, cherish, value, set (great) store by, prize, treasure, look up to, pay homage to, venerate, revere, reverence, adulate, worship, idolize, put on a pedestal, lionize, hero-worship, honour, applaud, praise, favour

2Have due regard for (someone’s feelings, wishes, or rights): I respected his views

• So surely that gives you the right to expect them to respect your feelings.
• We regard ourselves as a compassionate, tolerant society that respects the rights of others.
• And I hope you'll respect my wishes, and stop reading this site, and let us go our separate ways.

Synonyms

show consideration for, show regard for, take into consideration, take into account, make allowances for, take cognizance of, observe, pay heed/attention to, bear in mind, be mindful of, be heedful of, remember

archaic regard

2.1Avoid harming or interfering with: it is incumbent upon all hill users to respect the environment

• It is right that the culture and environment should be so respected.
• What I do want is for the lake and its environs to be respected, preserved, protected and enhanced for future generations.
• It was no doubt helpful that he grew in a household with other users, in circumstances in which quiet was respected and desirable.

2.2Agree to recognize and abide by (a legal requirement): the crown and its ministers ought to respect the ordinary law

• If the Commission wins, the Court will merely declare that the member state has failed to respect the particular legal obligation.
• English courts generally respect the legal form the parties impose on a transaction and do not recharacterize it in another way.
• He gave Quebec six months to start changing its forestry laws to respect the 25-year-old agreement.

Synonyms

abide by, comply with, follow, adhere to, conform to, act in accordance with, acquiesce to, assent to, consent to, accord to, yield to, submit to, defer to, bow to, obey, observe, hold to, keep (to), stick to, stand by, heed

Dictionary conventions:

The conventions of using a dictionary are simple; the word class is usually found underneath or next to the word in which you want to define, the definition of the word is in a small paragraph underneath the word class and the synonyms for the word are mostly found at the bottom of the words section/page.

Jean Aitchison's Metaphors

Crumbling Castle

treats English language as a beautiful old building with gargoyles and pinnacles which need to be preserved, assumes at some point the language was perfect - when?    

Damp Spoon

implication that sloppiness and laziness cause much of language change (glottal stop disputes this) 

Infectious Disease

view that changes are caught from those around us and infect the language, particularly related to Americanisms - English has taken from other languages throughout history - why a problem?   

Frog in a Well

Chinese folk tale - one day it hopped out and was astonished to find what a limited view of the world it had.


Bibliography:

https://quizlet.com/23157882/aitchison-metaphors-flash-cards/ 

Pescriptive attitudes to language change

A Compromise: How To Be A Reasonable Prescriptivist

Dear Language Peever:
Welcome to harm•less drudg•ery! You are here because you googled something like “literally killed English” or “different than is wrong” or “irregardless not a word.” Allow me to introduce myself: I’m that lady from the dictionary that made that stupid video about “irregardless.” Behold: I am a dread descriptivist.
Before you stomp off in a fit of pique, hear me out (if only because I used the right “pique”). Many people assume you and I are on different sides of the Great Grammar Debate–in fact, you probably assume this–but we have much in common. We are both carbon-based life forms with an Internet connection, and we both care deeply about language. And I know that you, a would-be prescriptivist, are sick of defending proper English to the hoi polloi and us hippie-dippy no-rulez descriptivists. I know this because this hippie-dippy descriptivist is pretty damn tired of having this conversation with you, too.
So in a spirit of bonhomie, I’m reaching across the aisle: I’m going to give you tools to be an informed prescriptivist and then let you go on your merry, doomsaying way, never to tell you to lighten the hell up again. Here, for your erudition, are the Six Steps to Becoming a Reasonable Prescriptivist.
Step 1: Learn what prescriptivism and descriptivism really are.
Last year, Joan Acocella at the New Yorker ostensibly reviewed a book by Henry Hitchings and used it as an opportunity to trot out that delightful old canard that descriptivists are “anything goes” hypocrites, while prescriptivists are the only ones who care about good writing and proper English. She was subsequently lambasted by just about everyone, which compelled the New Yorker to publish a follow-up article that was not only equally wrongheaded, but was updated with a ludicrous caveat in an attempt to defuse the situation, then un-updated to un-defuse a non-situation.
Here is why we were all in a lather over those articles: “descriptivist” is not a slur, and neither is “prescriptivist” a title of honor (or vice versa). They are merely terms that describe two approaches to analyzing language use. They are not linguistic matter and anti-matter, and when brought together, they will not destroy the universe in a cataclysm of bombast and “ain’t”s.  Good descriptivism involves a measure of prescriptivism, and good prescriptivism involves a measure of descriptivism. What good is a dictionary that enters “irregardless” but neglects to tell you that it’s not accepted as standard English? And how good is a usage and style guide that merely parrots rules with no careful consideration for the historical record of edited prose, or whether this rule does indeed produce clearer, cleaner writing?
In fact, do everyone a favor and just stop talking about “descriptivists vs. prescriptivists.” It’s a false dichotomy that only works if you construct a nonexistent descriptivist straw man as a foil to your upstanding-citizen prescriptivist (or vice versa. Prescriptivists don’t have the corner on language nastiness). For an excellent and well-reasoned take on descriptivism and prescriptivism, go read Jonathon Owen’s essay. I’d also recommend this very interesting discussion between Lane Greene (D) and Bryan Garner (P). If you want to see nerds break chairs over people’s heads, take your bloodlust elsewhere and go heckle a Scrabble tournament (wear a helmet).
Step 2: Learn what dictionaries actually do.
Something that really burns my proverbial biscuits is the musty insistence that dictionaries are the guardians and gatekeepers of the language, and when we enter a word into the Most Sacred Tomes of Webster, we lend it legitimacy. We’re putting our Seal of Approval on its unchecked use, which will eventually kill English.
If you don’t know what dictionaries really do, you can go read this blather, and please consider that people have literally (sense 1) been whining about the demise of English since the 15th century, long before English dictionaries showed up to ruin everything.
Step 3: Educate yourself.
One of the things I find fascinating about some self-proclaimed prescriptivists is that they hold to usage advice that professional prescriptivists have essentially given up on. “Stop using ‘hopefully’ as a sentence adverb! Sentence adverbs are the devil!” some folks say. But Bryan Garner, professional prescriptivist, judges that the sentence adverb “hopefully” is common in use and probably not worth the effort, even if some people still oppose its use.
The problem here is one merely of education, and is easy to remedy: buy some usage dictionaries. At least two, preferably four, written by both descriptivists and prescriptivists. Arrange them near your desk in a way that is aesthetically pleasing. There. Aren’t they nice? They are nice. NOW READ THEM.
Most modern usage dictionaries will give you a little historical overview of a contested use, and then will offer advice on how (or whether) to use it.  You will be surprised to discover that many thinking prescriptivists disagree in their advice, or pass judgment on uses that are so common, no one knows they are not supposed to be using that word that way (e.g., “above” as a noun, as in “all of the above”).  A reasonable prescriptivist critically reads all the evidence and advice they can, and then makes their own judgment.
Step 4: Remember that opinions and facts are two different things.   
My mother, bless her, claims that when I complete a task and holler “I’m done,” I am announcing to the room that I have reached a safe internal minimum temperature and hence will not give you trichinosis. “You’re done, are you? Should I stick a fork in you to make sure?”, she will tut. “You’re finished, not done.”
Alas were it so, but the historical record shows that “done” has been used to mean “completed” or “finished” since the 14th century. The “be done” construction in particular dates back to the 18th century.
Nonetheless, my mother  is of the opinion that this use of “done” is wrong, and she is welcome to that opinion. I am of the opinion that if I say “I’m done” and you really think I’m referring to cooking myself, then you have other issues we need to discuss–and I am entitled to my opinion as well. Both of our positions are equally correct insofar as any preference or opinion is “correct.” A usage preference is not a usage fact, and it should not be held as such. I prefer cake over pie and vanilla over chocolate; but cake is not empirically better than pie, nor is vanilla more correct than chocolate.  Even if science proved that vanilla is more correct, as I am sure it one day will, my preference for vanilla will still be just that: a preference.
Your personal language preference is yours, and it is unassailable. I can hurl citation after citation at it with my standard-issue Lexicographer’s Trebuchet, but a personal decision you make with and keep for yourself is inviolable. “I prefer to use ‘finished’ instead of ‘done'” is a statement that no thinking descriptivist will argue with, because you are not claiming it is a universal fact everyone should subscribe to. But saying “‘I’m done’ is wrong” makes what is an opinion into a fact, and baby, my trebuchet was built for nonsense like that.
Step 5: Realize that you are not the center of the linguistic (or actual) universe.
I have a friend–well, a “friend”–who feels  it is his life’s mission to let me know when I’ve used a word incorrectly. He will stop a conversation dead in its tracks to share with me that I didn’t pronounce “towards” right, or that I should stop saying “howdy” out here on the East Coast because it’s hickish. It’s not just that our conversations are stilted because I can’t finish a sentence without being grammarsplained to; it’s that he makes these judgments based on his own dialectal language patterns. His experience becomes the standard for what is right and proper and good.  In other words, what he speaks is Standard English, and what everyone else speaks is Really Wrong.
In a similar vein, I can’t tell you the number of emails I’ve received over the years that explain that “phat” or \NOO-kyu-lur\  or “irregardless” is wrong and shouldn’t be legitimized in our dictionaries because no one with a modicum of common sense, class, or education would dare use them. I also can’t tell you what my unedited response to this oft-repeated drivel is because I believe it breaks obscenity laws in 33 states.
It’s human nature to make our own experiences and beliefs the standard by which we judge other people and things. But it is, to be blunt, stupid to pretend that English is a monolithic structure that does not have enough room for accent, dialect, or register variations. “Phat” is slang and you shouldn’t use it in formal speech or writing: this is not disputed advice. Are you so presumptuous as to think that a conversation you’re having with the office supplies clerk about “American Idol” is considered formal speech, and therefore the clerk shouldn’t use “phat”? Are you so provincial and backwards that you honestly believe that someone with a southern US accent who may say \NOO-kyu-lur\ instead of \NOO-klee-ur\ is uneducated or stupid? Because y’all, where I come from, we reckon that’s elitist horseshit.
No thinking descriptivist is going to disagree with you when you say that certain words should not be used in certain contexts. But a reasonable prescriptivist understands that different contexts and times often require different types of use, and they tailor their advice to the context and the era.  The best practices of written English have changed dramatically over the last two centuries. Language is flexible; advice regarding its best use should be as well.
Step 6: Lighten up, Francis
Let’s say that you feel, despite the evidence I may put in front of you, that “decimate” should not be used to refer to utterly destroying something. That’s fine, assuming you’ve gone through Steps 1-5 above. But before you move in to correct the next guy who uses “decimate” to mean “to utterly destroy,” consider: is this the hill you want to die on? Do you want your legacy in life to be “That One Person Who Bitched Endlessly About ‘Decimate'”? Are you happy with a life that will be beset by smart-asses like me asking why, if you are so interested in so-called etymological purity, you aren’t also tackling “nice” and “frankfurter” and holy hell half the month names of the Gregorian calendar?
The core question here is an existential, not a grammatical, one: why are you a prescriptivist? Perhaps you’re a professional editor and you need to uphold a style sheet that demands you subscribe to dusty old shibboleths (some of which you may adore). Perhaps you’re a writer and you don’t want to drive your editors crazy. Perhaps you feel that championing best practices makes for better reading and writing. Hell: maybe you just like following rules. Those are fine reasons for being a reasonable prescriptivist. But if you are a prescriptivist because it gives you a sense of superiority and inflated self-worth, a little pillar from which you can spit on the idiot masses below, then you are the sort of prescriptivist that is giving prescriptivism a bad name. Maybe take up yoga?
Don’t get me wrong: descriptivists dislike bad writing, too, but try to put things in perspective. Yes, misused apostrophes irritate me, a descriptivist. Do I feel that people who misuse apostrophes “deserve to be struck by lightning, hacked up on the spot and buried in an unmarked grave“? No, of course not: I’m not a sociopath. Do I cringe when people use “impactful”? Oh yeah. If I were editing a piece of writing that used “impactful,” I would very likely revise it out of the text. Does “impactful” make me want to blow up the world? No, not even on a bad day when I have to goddamned write the entry for “impactful.” It is possible to love the sinner yet hate the sin, even if that sin is “impactful.”
The English language is not under attack by barbarians, and you are not her only hope. She’s taken pretty good care of herself, all things considered. Her best practices have always prevailed.  In short: be cordial, humble, and hopeful. It’s so much better than being miserable  and insufferable.


Bibliography:
https://korystamper.wordpress.com/2013/08/23/a-compromise-how-to-be-a-reasonable-prescriptivist/

Responding to the article 'Is language like fashion, or the weather?'

This article explains how language change effects society, its comparing how much of a statement fashion makes no matter the strangeness of it and explores how the smallest change in our language can have an even larger and possibly threatening impact on the whole of society.

David Shariatmadari also says that similar to fashion, large social groups often influence the general public into saying specific language 'trends'. Ultimately, language is a social expression of who we are and where we come from as well as a tool, so we are encouraged to think of it practically. When speaking there are a few things that grammatically make sense to use, but aren't essential when communicating; this is called 'Redundancy' it's deeply rooted in language and one can and many redundancy features within grammar, syntax and other aspects of language. We propose a new classification of linguistic redundancy into what we call `contex-tual redundancy' and `grammatical redundancy'. Changing our language and the common words we say has to come from someone of a very influential status for it to be able to become recognised, someone who isn't very influential will have little impact on changing and reshaping our language e.g. Simon Heffer waging war against the use of the word "gay" to mean homosexual.

The argument that linguistic changes are just like changes in style and taste is a serious one; The "tailfin interpretation", as it's been labelled says "there is no more reason for languages to change than there is for automobiles to add fins one year and remove them the next, for jackets to have three buttons one year and two the next" said Paul Postal in 1968. So is this the new way in which language evolves now, whatever's trending or in fashion adds a new word into the dictionary? But its not just words that this has an influence on, its also our pronunciation (glottal stops- not pronouncing the 't' in football) and intonation (like 'uptalk', when our pitch rises at the end of our sentence).

Diachronic linguistics is the same thing as historical linguistics and is the study of the changes in language over time. Synchronic linguistics is the study of the linguistic elements and usage of a language at a particular moment.

Changes in fashion have positive responses and usually become trending (this is called having a 'descriptive attitude' which involves deducing new languages rules and analysing why the word was created), however changes in language are sometimes treated with negative responses. These people have a 'prescriptive' attitude, an attitude that doesn't welcome new language if it doesn't stick to the grammatical rules. It has also become noticed that unlike fashion, trends in language from decades ago don't usually come back and aren't repeated in modern society. Fashion trends however do come back, including patterns from post war and trainers from the 70's.

We can apply the Language module theory which refers to a hypothesized structure in the human brain (anatomical module) or cognitive system (functional module) that some psycholinguists such as Steven Pinker claim contains innate capacities for language.

The 'Chaos Theory' discusses how chaotic the world really is, they explain how the smallest change can have an huge impact on something else and something much larger. It also explains how unpredictable language is, depending on the happenings in society, language can change and impact the social movement.

Resources:
http://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/sep/21/referenceandlanguages.mattseaton
http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2014/may/06/language-fashion-weather-speak
http://www.math.rug.nl/~ernst/linguistics/redundancy3.pdf

Exploring the etymology and the stages of semantic development of the word 'Wicked'

Wicked

adjective: wicked; comparative adjective: wickeder; superlative adjective: wickedest

Origin

 

The word originated from the Middle English word wicca ‘witch’ + -ed. Its middle English meaning was something evil and usually was associated with witches.

Overtime the word has been used less frequently and has changed it meaning to something 'cool' and 'exiting'.

Use in language and literature:

In literature and formally it has kept its original meaning of 'cruel' but in speech it has the more urban meaning of 'cool'. The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners defines the principal meaning of wicked as "morally wrong and deliberately intending to hurt people". The word wicked is believed to derive from the Old English word wicca meaning wizard. The female equivalent of wicca was wicce and this has given us the word witch. Wicked and witch are closely related in origin and it is interesting that the words are often used together in fairy tales.

In modern English, wicked can be used in an positive way in expressions like a wicked sense of humour or a wicked smile, where it has the meaning of being slightly cruel without intending to upset anyone. If you say someone has a wicked sense of humour there is almost a note of admiration in what you say and this is also evident in examples in a sporting context such as "He has a wicked left hook". Perhaps it was this latter use that gave rise to the informal use of wicked, particularly by young people, to mean very good, as in "Have you heard this song? It's really wicked." However, wicked is also a contronym, a word that has two opposite meanings because on one hand wicked means cool and on the other it means 'cruel'. It still has some of its old meaning of evil but its now reduced its intensity of the word.

The meaning may have changed because now we don't believe in witches or evil creatures, therefor we have developed the word into something that we can use.

In modern day, 'wicked' has also become a very popular brand name. As well as the play there is also wicked the: clothing brand, web design company, chocolate company and a brand culture shop.

'Wicked' synonyms:

1. 1.

   evil or morally wrong.

   
   

   "a wicked and unscrupulous politician"

   
   

   synonyms:

   evil, sinful, immoral, wrong, morally wrong, wrongful, bad, iniquitous, corrupt, black-hearted, ungodly, unholy, irreligious, unrighteous, sacrilegious, profane, blasphemous, impious, base, mean, vile; More irreverent, villainous, nefarious, erring, fallen, impure, sullied, tainted, foul, monstrous, shocking, outrageous, atrocious, abominable, reprehensible, hateful, detestable, despicable, odious, contemptible, horrible, heinous, execrable, godless, diabolical, diabolic, fiendish, vicious, murderous, barbarous, black, dark, rotten; criminal, illicit, unlawful, illegal, illegitimate, lawless, felonious, indictable; perverted, reprobate, sordid, depraved, degenerate, dissolute, dishonourable, dishonest, unscrupulous, unprincipled, underhand, roguish; informalcrooked, warped, low-down, stinking, dirty, shady, rascally, scoundrelly; informalbeastly, bent, not cricket; malfeasant; archaicdastardly; Use over time for: wicked rarepeccable, egregious, flagitious "a wicked man"

   antonyms:

   virtuous

   • intended to or capable of harming someone or something.

     
     

     "he pulled the long, wicked-looking dagger from its sheath"
   • informal

     extremely unpleasant.

     
     

     "despite the sun, the wind outside was wicked"

     
     

     disagreeable, unpleasant, foul, fierce, bad, nasty, irksome, troublesome, annoying, irritating, vexatious, displeasing, uncomfortable, distressing, hateful, detestable, miserable, abominable, execrable, odious, invidious, objectionable "the wind outside was wicked"
2. 2.

   playfully mischievous.

   
   

   
   

   
   

   synonyms:

   mischievous, playful, naughty, impish, roguish, arch, rascally, rakish, puckish, waggish, devilish, tricksy, cheeky, raffish, teasing "a wicked sense of humour"

3. 3.

   informal

   excellent; wonderful.

   
   

   "Sophie makes wicked cakes"

   
   

   synonyms:

   excellent, superb, superlative, first-rate, first-class, superior, outstanding, remarkable, dazzling, marvellous, magnificent, wonderful, splendid, admirable, noteworthy, impressive, fine, exquisite, exceptional, glorious, sublime, peerless, perfect, of the first water; More informalsuper, great, fantastic, fabulous, terrific, awesome, heavenly, stellar, ace, smashing, supercalifragilisticexpialidocious, A1, tip-top, top-notch, neat, mega, cool, banging, cracking, crucial; informalbrilliant, brill, bosting; badass; informaldivine "Sophie makes wicked cakes"